The Cooperative CommonwealthEdward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1888), the century's best-selling novel after Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, tells the story of a young man who awakens in the year 2000 after a sleep lasting more than 100 years. He is surprised to learn that Americans had solved their
major problems. There is no poverty, no crime, war, taxes, air pollution, or even housework. Nor are there politicians, capitalists, bankers, or lawyers. Most amazing, gone is the great social division between the powerful rich and the suffering poor. In the year 2000 everyone lives in material comfort, happily and harmoniously. No wonder Bellamy's hero shudders at the thought of returning to the late nineteenth century, a time of "worldwide bloodshed, greed and tyranny." Community and
cooperation are the key concepts in Bellamy's utopian tale. The nation's businesses, including farms and factories, have been given over to the collective ownership of the people. Elected officials now plan the production and distribution of goods for the common well-being. With great efficiency, they even manage huge department stores and warehouses full of marvelous manufactured goods and oversee majestic apartment complexes with modern facilities for cooking, dining, and
laundering. To get the necessary work done, an industrial army enlists all adult men and women, but automated machinery has eliminated most menial tasks. Moreover, the workday lasts only four hours; vacations extend to six months of each year. At age forty-five everyone retires to pursue hobbies, sports, and culture. Bellamy designed his technological utopia to promote the "highest possible physical, as well as mental, development for everyone." There was nothing fantastic in this plan, the author insisted. It simply required Americans to share equally the abundant resources of their land. If the nation's citizens actually lived up to their democratic ideals, Bellamy declared, the United States would become a "cooperative commonwealth," that is, a nation governed by the people for their common welfare. Bellamy, a journalist and writer of historical fiction from Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts, moved thousands of his readers to action. His most ardent fans endorsed his program for a "new nation" and formed the Nationalist movement, which by the early
1890s reached an apex of 165 clubs. Terence V. Powderly of the Knights of Labor declared himself a Nationalist. Many leaders of the woman suffrage movement also threw in their support. They endorsed Looking Backwards depiction of marriage as a union of "perfect equals" and admired Bellamy's sequel, Equality (1897), which showed how women might become "absolutely free agents" by ending their financial dependence on men. During the 1890s Bellamy's disciples actually attempted to create new communities along the lines set forth in Looking Backward. The best-known and longest-lasting of these settlements was established in Point Loma, California, in 1897. Situated on 330 acres, with avenues winding through gardens and orchards newly planted
with groves of eucalyptus trees, Point Loma was known for its physical beauty. Many young married couples chose to live in small bungalows, which were scattered throughout the colony's grounds; others opted for private rooms in a large communal building. Either way, they all met
twice daily to share meals and usually spent their leisure hours together. On the ocean's edge the residents constructed an outdoor amphitheater and staged plays and concerts. The colony's founder, Katherine Tingley, described Point Loma as "a practical illustration of the possibility of
developing a higher type of humanity." No one earned wages, but all 500 residents lived comfortably. They dressed simply in clothes manufactured by the community's women. The majority of the men worked in agriculture. They conducted horticultural experiments that yielded new types of avocados and tropical fruits and eventually produced over half of the community's food supply. Children, who slept in a special dormitory from the time they reached school age, enjoyed an education so outstanding that they often demonstrated their talents to audiences in nearby San Diego. They excelled in the fine arts, including music and drama. The Point Loma community never met all its expenses but managed to remain solvent for decades. Admirers across the country sent donations. Baseball entrepreneur Albert Spalding, who lived there during his retirement, helped to make up the financial deficit. As late as the 1950s some seventy-five members still lived on about 100 acres of land. The establishment of even relatively successful cooperative communities such as Point Loma could not bring about the changes that Bellamy hoped to see, and he knew it. Only a mobilization of citizens nationwide could overturn the existing hierarchies and usher in the egalitarian order depicted in Looking Backward. Without such a rigorous challenge, the economic and political leadership that had been emerging since the Civil War would continue to consolidate its power and become even further removed from popular control. The last quarter of the nineteenth century saw just such a challenge, producing what one historian calls "a moment of democratic promise." Ordinary citizens sought to renew the older values of community through farm
and labor organizations, philanthropic and charitable societies. They could not clearly see, however, that the fate of the nation depended increasingly upon events beyond its territorial boundaries. Business leaders and politicians had proposed their own vision of the future: an
American empire extending to far distant lands.
INTELLECTUAL & CULTURAL TRENDS
GROWTH OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES
NEWSPAPERS -
PULITZER'S - NEW YORK WORLD.
HEARST'S NEW YORK JOURNAL.
HEADLINES DEVOTED TO CRIME.
ATTACKED CRIME / CORRUPTION.
MAGAZINES - HARPERS / ATLANTIC MONTHLY / LADIES HOME JOURNAL.
COLLEGES - 1878 - 1898 - COLLEGES INCREASED FROM 350 TO 500.
ENROLLMENT TRIPLED.
VASSAR (WOMEN'S COLLEGE).
PROFESSORS WELL PAID.
LAKE CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT - 2 WK. SUMMER COURSES.
MEALS / SONGFESTS / LECTURES / INSTRUCTION.
(LITERATURE / SCIENCE / GOVT. / ECONOMICS).
SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES - PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY (SPEED OF LIGHT).
NEW SOCIAL SCIENCE - THEORY OF EVOLUTION.
STUDY OF INSTITUTIONS.
1881 - LAW & HISTORY -
OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES ("THE COMMON LAW").
LAW NOT ONLY BASED ON PRECEDENT.
1893 - FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER - (FRONTIER THESIS) - "THE SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY".
(INDIVIDUALISM / ISOLATION / CONSTANT BUILDING / SHAPED AMERICAN CHARACTER
& SOCIETY.
MARK TWAIN (SAMUEL L. CLEMENT) - LITERARY REALISM. (A TALE SHOULD
ACCOMPLISH SOMETHING).
TALK LIKE HUMANS TALK.
TELEGRAPH & TRANSOCEANIC CABLES - TRANSFORMED NEWS.
BECOMING A WORLD POWER
IN SEARCH OF PUBLIC INTEREST
DEPRESSION OF 1893.
SOCIAL UNREST.
MARCHES ON WASHINGTON.
AMERICAN COMPULSION TO REFORM
AMERICA'S DILEMMA - HOW TO DO GOOD IN A
WORLD THAT DOES WRONG?
AMERICA IN THE 1890'S - LET THE EYES OF
THE WORLD BE UPON US.
AMERICA - A NATION W/ SPECIAL MISSION.
MANIFEST DESTINY - GOVT. POLICY UNTIL
1850'S. (EXPANDED ACROSS N.
AMER.)
MONROE DOCTRINE IN 1823 - WARNED EUROPE TO
STAY OUT OF W. HEMISPHERE / (OUR
BACKYARD.)
DEFENSIVE.
AMERICA BELIEVED IT STOOD AS FORCE FOR
GOOD. (HAD PROBLEM / STILL
ISOLATIONISTIC.)
AMER. IN PAST HAD NOT FORCED IDEAS,
INSTITUTIONS ON OTHERS.
AMER. MOTIVATED BY IDEALISM /
SELF-INTEREST.
1867 - WILLIAM SEWARD (LINCOLN'S SEC. OF
STATE) BOUGHT ALASKA FROM RUSSIA
($7.2)
ALSO BOUGHT COALING STATIONS IN
MID-PACIFIC. (THINKING OF KOREA, JAPAN,
CHINA.)
1870 - US RELUCTANT TO ADD LAND OUTRIGHT.
LOOKING FOR COMMERCIAL DOMINANCE. (LATIN
AMER. / ASIA.)
1870S - US INVOLVED IN SUGAR INDUSTRY IN
HAWAII / US GAINED RIGHT TO NAVAL
BASE ON OAHU (PEARL HARBOR) THROUGH SUGAR
TREATIES.
US BROUGHT IN JAPANESE / SUGAR WORKERS /
HAWAIIANS DYING FROM WHITE MAN’S
DISEASE.
1890 - HAWAII ANNEXED (WHITE SUGAR GROWERS
RUN HAWAII)
1890 - US ARMY 13TH / NAVY 10TH.
1890 - FRONTIER CLOSED / AMERICAN'S WOULD
LOOK FOR NEW FRONTIERS.
1898 - AMERICA MAKING MORE THAN CAN
CONSUME / GROWING MORE THAN CAN EAT
1900 - U.S. NO 1 IN PRODUCTION IN WORLD.
CHINA LOOKS LIKE GREAT PLACE TO SELL
EXCESS.
1890'S ASST. SEC. OF NAVY THEODORE
ROOSEVELT, SEN. HENRY CABOT LODGE
CHANGED U.S. FOREIGN POLICY. (EXTREMELY
NATIONALISTIC, SHIFTED FROM
CONTINENTALISM TO THE LARGE POLICY.
(MANIFEST DESTINY/ NATIONAL PRIDE /
NATIONALISM / FASCISM} AGAIN?)
CONQUEST OF PHILIPPINES
U.S. REVOLUTIONARY TRADITION, FACED
INWARD.
AVOIDED EUROPEAN CONFLICT. (WASHINGTON -
AVOID "ENTANGLING ALLIANCES")
AVOIDED TAKING COLONIES, LIKE OTHER SUPER
POWERS.
U.S. EXPANSIVE IN N. AMERICA, AND LATIN
AMERICA (MEXICO).
STAYED IN OUR HEMISPHERE.
ROOSEVELT, TAFT, WILSON: MORALLY SUPERIOR
LEAD OTHERS INTO NEW / BETTER WORLD.
BRING DEMOCRACY TO WORLD.
1890'S - COMPETITION FOR REMAINING WORLD.
EUROPE VERY EXPANSIONIST.
BIG NAVY ADVOCATES
NAVY - INSTRUMENT OF FOREIGN POLICY.
"LOBBY OF JUNIOR OFFICERS"
1890 CAPT. ALFRED THAYER MAHAN, "INFLUENCE
OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY, 1660-1783"
ADVOCATED COLONIES IN CARIBBEAN, PACIFIC.
DARWINIAN STRUGGLE FOR WORLD.
STRONG NATIONS HAVE SPECIAL RESPONSIBILITY
TO DOMINATE WEAK ONES.
AMER. MUST LOOK OUTWARD.
MAHAN - FATHER OF MODERN NAVY.
US / BRITISH USED AS TEXTBOOK.
GERMANY PLACED BOOK ON ALL SHIPS.
JAPAN VERY INTERESTED ALSO.
MAHAN - FIRST LAW IS SELF-PRESERVATION.
(STALIN SAID SAME THING AFTER W.W.II)
ACQUIRE COLONIES, GROWTH IS HEALTHY,
ESTABLISH NAVY BASES IN STRATEGIC
PLACES AROUND WORLD.
ROOSEVELT A DISCIPLE, BUILD LARGE NAVY.
NICARAGUAN CANAL. (PANAMA CANAL)
PUSH SPAIN OUT OF CARIBBEAN.
HENRY CABOT LODGE, MAHAN DISCIPLE.
STRONG POLITICAL FIGURE FOR 30 YRS.
1893 - FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER "FRONTIER
THESIS".
LODGE / ROOSEVELT / MAHAN - U.S. BECAUSE
OF HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, POLITICAL
GENIUS, U.S. IS FAVORED NATION.
GOD HAS CHOSEN THE U.S. TO UPLIFT.
CARE FOR LESS FAVORED NATIONS.
RESPONSIBILITY CANNOT BE AVOIDED.
WHITE MAN'S BURDEN / MUST BRING PEACE,
PROGRESSIVE VALUES, ORDERED
LIBERTY TO WORLD.
1874-1914 U.S. MISSIONARIES FLOODED CHINA.
WESTERN IDEAS OF MISSIONARIES CAUSED
REVOLUTION OF 1912.
1870-1930 - NUMBER OF U.S. FIRMS IN CHINA
GREW 1500%.
1895 - CUBAN REVOLUTION BEGINS.
GRANT INTERESTED IN CUBA, DOMINICAN
REPUBLIC, AND CANAL.
1898 BEGINNINGS OF AMERICA AS GREAT
MILITARY POWER.
CUBAN PROBLEM
CUBAN FREEDOM FIGHTERS. (TERRORISTS,
REBELS?)
CONFLICT IN 1895.
MADRID FAILED TO REFORM.
1896 - SENT 50,000 TROOPS TO PUT DOWN
REVOLT.
REVOLT SAVAGE.
U.S. OUTRAGED / THANKS TO HURST (N.Y.
JOURNAL) & JOSEPH PULITZER (N.Y.
WORLD)
SUGAR INTEREST & SYMPATHY FOR UNDERDOG.
WILLIAM RANDOLPH HEARST, SENT FREDERICK
REMINGTON TO CUBA, DRAW PICTURES,
NO WAR.
"YOU FURNISH PICTURES, I'LL FURNISH THE
WAR"
AMERICANS SYMPATHETIC TO STRUGGLING
CUBANS.
CUBA STRATEGIC - SOURCE OF REVENUE, SUGAR.
IF CUBA INDEPENDENT, MIGHT BECOME RADICAL.
1897 - SPAIN LAUNCHES BLOODY MIL.
OPERATION TO END REVOLT.
IF U.S. RECOGNIZED CUBA'S INDEPENDENCE,
WOULD HAVE TO FIGHT SPAIN.
2/15/1898 - MAINE BLEW UP IN HAVANA
HARBOR. (SENT TO PROTECT U.S.
CITIZENS)
262 AMER. KILLED.
(YELLOW PRESS CALLED FOR WAR AGAINST
SPAIN, MYSTERY NEVER SOLVED, (BLEW UP
FROM INSIDE) SPAIN DID NOT WANT WAR WITH
U.S. (RECALLED TROOPS)
ROOSEVELT (ASST. SEC. OF NAVY).
SAID McKinley HAD NO MORE BACKBONE THAN A
CHOCOLATE ÉCLAIR.
SEC. OF NAVY (JOHN D. LONG) AWAY FROM
OFFICE.
ASST. ROOSEVELT COMMANDS DEWEY IN PACIFIC
TO READY SHIPS FOR WAR W/ SPAIN.
DO NOT ALLOW SPANISH FLEET TO LEAVE
ASIATIC COAST.
4/11/1898 - MCKINLEY ASKS CONGRESS FOR
DECLARATION OF WAR.
2 WKS. LATER CONGRESS AUTHORIZED USE OF
TROOPS, RECOGNIZED CUBAN
INDEPENDENCE.
RESOLVED THAT U.S. HAD NO INTENT TO ANNEX
CUBA.
U.S. BLOCKADED CUBAN PORTS. (ACT OF WAR?)
U.S. NAVY - 2,000 OFFICERS / 24,000 MEN
BASED IN HONG KONG UNDER
COMMODORE GEO. DEWEY.
SPAIN DECLARED WAR ON U.S.
FIRST BLOW WAS MANILA HARBOR, PHILIPPINES.
COMMODORE GEO. DEWEY.
5/1/1898 U.S. NAVY SURPRISED / SUNK
SPANISH FLEET.
ENDED SPANISH NAVY IN PACIFIC. (BATTLE OF
MANILA BAY)
BATTLE LASTED ONLY 14 HRS.
U.S. NAVY BOTTLED UP SPANISH NAVY IN
MANILA BAY.
SPAIN LOST 381 - ALL SPANISH SHIPS SUNK.
NO U.S. SHIPS DAMAGED.
NO U.S. KILLED / 8 U.S. WOUNDED. (LOST 2
AMERICANS, 1 FROM HEAT)
6/14/1898 - (BATTLES OF CUBA BEGINS).
17,000 U.S. REGULARS / VOLUNTEERS.
(INCLUDING LT. COL. T. ROOSEVELT &
ROUGH RIDERS) GATHER IN TAMPA, FLA. (UNDER
GEN. WILLIAM SHAFFER)
FORCES POORLY TRAINED.
SPANISH ATLANTIC FLEET SAILED INTO
SANTIAGO HARBOR (CUBA)
FOR PROTECTION TO LAND GUNS.
U.S. NAVY SETS UP BLOCKADE. (LED BY ADM.
WILLIAM T. SAMPSON)
7/1/1898 - BATTLES OF EL CANEY & SAN JUAN
HILL.
BATTLE OF EL CANEY - 1 DAY.
7,000. U.S. TROOPS OVERRUN SPANISH
GARRISON OF 600.
BATTLE OF SAN JUAN HILL - ROOSEVELT'S
ROUGH RIDERS TAKE SPANISH
POSITIONS. (HEAVY FIRE, HEAVY LOSSES).
1,572 U.S. CASUALTIES / CAPTURE HIGH
GROUND OVER SANTIAGO HARBOR.
SPANISH FLEET DOOMED.
7/3/1898 - SPANISH FLEET TRIES TO RUN U.S.
BLOCKADE.
4 HOUR BATTLE.
SPANISH - 474 DEAD.
1750 TAKEN PRISONER.
U.S. - 1 DEAD.
6 WOUNDED.
SPANISH FLEET SUNK.
SPANISH SURRENDER 24,000 IN SANTIAGO
GARRISON.
8/13/1898 - U.S. TROOPS (ASSISTED BY
FILIPINO GUERRILLA LEADER, GEN.
EMILIO AGUINALDO).
OCCUPY MANILA.
ACCEPTED SPANISH SURRENDER OF PHILIPPINES.
MAJOR BATTLE - SAN JUAN HILL - U.S. ARMY
WORN OUT DEMORALIZED.
T. ROOSEVELT GREAT FUN, BULLY FIGHT,
BLOODY.
ONLY WON BECAUSE OF SPANISH NAVY DECISION
TO DEFEND HONOR IN OPEN BATTLE
AGAINST U.S. FLEET, 8/1898 SPANISH NAVY
WIPED OUT.
SPANISH ARMY GIVES UP.
WAR (W/CUBA) LASTED 10 WEEKS.
MOST POPULAR WAR IN U.S. HISTORY. (U.S.
LOST 385 TO SPANISH IN BATTLES /
5,000 TO TROPICAL DISEASES.)
FULFILLMENT OF MONROE DOCTRINE (12/1823)
(AUTHORED BY JOHN Q. ADAMS)
AFTER WAR WITH SPAIN, WHAT TO DO WITH
PHILIPPINES? ANNEXED ALL 7,000
PHILIPPINE ISLES. (U.S. GAVE SPAIN $20
MILLION)
TAFT THOUGHT U.S. SHOULD DOMINATE
PHILIPPINES.
WIN HEARTS AND MINDS.
PACIFICATION PROG. LIKE VIETNAM
FILIPINOS WANTED SELF GOVERNMENT. / NOT
AMER. DEMOCRACY WITH RIFLE.
INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT EXISTED MANY YRS.
BEFORE U.S.
MISUNDERSTANDING (BOTH SIDES)
2/1899 PHILIPPINE INSURRECTION. (AGAINST
U.S.)
MCKINLEY, "I DIDN'T WANT THE PHILIPPINES.
CAN'T GIVE BACK TO SPAIN, CAN'T LET FRANCE
OR GERMANY HAVE THEM.
CAN'T LEAVE TO THEMSELVES, (UNFIT FOR SELF
RULE, CHILDLIKE, SAVAGE, STUNTED,
DIRTY & BACKWARD) CHRISTIANIZE THEM.
WAR UNEXPECTED WITH FILIPINO
REVOLUTIONARIES.
MCKINLEY DID NOT KNOW WHERE PHILIPPINES
WERE)
EMILIO AGUINALDO - INVITED FROM EXILE TO
HELP U.S. FIGHT SPAIN / WHEN LATER
CAPTURED / REVOLUTION CONTINUED W/O HIM.
AMERICA HAS HER EMPIRE.
AMERICA'S. NEW FOREIGN POLICY.
FILIPINOS FELT BETRAYED.
EMILIO AGUINALDO RESUMED FIGHT FOR
INDEPENDENCE, NOW AGAINST U.S.
BLOODY / HIT AND RUN GUERRILLA WAR.
LASTED 4 YEARS (OVER IN 1902).
WAR W/SPAIN LASTED ONLY 10 WKS.
COST U.S. $600 MILLION.
126,500 SERVED.
4,234 DEAD / 2,800 WOUNDED.
FILIPINO CASUALTIES - 18,000 IN COMBAT.
200,000 OF DISEASE / FAMINE.
ATROCITIES ON BOTH SIDES.
COST MUCH MORE THAN SPANISH PART OF WAR.
U.S. HELD PHILIPPINES BECAUSE EUROPE
THREATENED TO TAKE THEM OTHERWISE.
MCKINLEY CONVINCED OF VALUE OF LIMITED
EMPIRE.
1946 - PHILIPPINES INDEPENDENT FROM U.S.
U.S. WANTED FRIENDLY PORT TO OVERSEE ASIAN
TRADE.
AMER. STRATEGY - REFORM PHILIPPINE
ECONOMIC SOCIETY.
1901 ORDEAL OF SAMAR - BRUTAL.
DEADLY MINOR SKIRMISHES / NO RULES.
MARINE COMMANDER COURT - MARTIALED,
ACQUITTED.
U.S. TROOPS RETURNED TO BALANGIGA EXECUTED
ALL FILIPINOS / BURNED ALL BODIES /
BURNED VILLAGE TO GROUND.
REBELLION IN PHILIPPINES & CHINA CAUSED
U.S. TO RETHINK FOREIGN POLICY AND
IMPERIALISTS IDEAS.
GOOD TIMES RETURN TO U.S.
MOOD CHANGES.
GUERRILLA-SPANISH FOR LITTLE WAR.
PHILIPPINES FORERUNNER TO VIETNAM.
ALSO RESEMBLES NATIVE AMERICAN SOLUTION.
SUSPICIOUS CASUALTY FIGURES, 15 DEAD - 1
WOUNDED FILIPINOS, IN
PHILIPPINES.
IN CIVIL WAR 1 DEAD - 5 WOUNDED.
GEN. MACARTHUR - "INFERIOR RACES DIED MORE
EASILY THAN ANGLO-SAXONS.
BOTH INDECISIVE, FAILED TO REALIZE HOW
MUCH NATIVES WANTED
INDEPENDENCE.
LITTLE KNOWN ABOUT EITHER COUNTRY.
TORTURE, "WATER CURE",
AFTER INITIAL SMASHING VICTORY, WHAT TO DO
NEXT?
PACIFICATION SLOW.
APPROACHING US ELECTIONS.
AFTER AGUINALDO CAPTURED, HELPED PUT
FIGHTING TO END.
W.W.II - U.S. AND FILIPINOS GUERRILLAS
FOUGHT SIDE BY SIDE.
1946 - PHILIPPINES FREE AND INDEPENDENT.
U.S. DEFEAT OF SPAIN PROVIDED AMER.
EMPIRE.
7/4/1898 U.S. - TAKES WAKE ISLAND
7/7/1898 "ANNEXES HAWAII
AMER. FOREIGN POLICY INFLUENCED BY -
"AMER. MISSION" / "FRONTIER
THESIS" / ANGLO-SAXON SUPREMACY.
TREATY OF PARIS GAVE PHILIPPINES TO U.S.
(NOT SURE SHE WANTED THEM AT THE
TIME)
1900 - U.S. HAS 75 MILLION PEOPLE.
MORE THAN GB, FRANCE, OR GER. (ALL HAD
COLONIES IN ASIA AND AFRICA.)
AMER. AFRAID OF GETTING BEHIND.
MONROE DOCTRINE - DEFENSIVE.
ROOSEVELT COROLLARY / OFFENSIVE.
ROOSEVELT COROLLARY - U.S. WOULD INTERVENE
IF CENTRAL OR SOUTH AMERICA FELL INTO
DISORDER.
WOULD NOT OR COULD NOT HONOR OBLIGATIONS.
DOLLAR DIPLOMACY - ANOTHER NAME FOR
ROOSEVELT LATIN AMER. POLICY.
AMER. NOW DEPENDENT ON WORLD COMMERCE.
EUROPEAN POWERS AGGRESSIVELY
EXPANSIONISTIC ALL OVER WORLD.
WILSON ORDERED U.S. INTO MEXICO TO
MODERATE MEX. POLICIES.
PROTECT U.S. BORDERS.
OPPOSITION TO VERSAILLES TREATY (ENDED
W.W.I) BECAUSE IT LINKED U.S. TO
PERM. WORLD ORGANIZATION.
GERMANY'S SCHIEFFEN PLAN ORDERED ATTACK
1ST ON FRANCE THEN RUSSIA.
PROGRESSIVE FOREIGN POLICY
ECONOMIC DEPRESSION OF THE 1890'S.
DECLINE OF SALES, SALARIES.
DID NOT WANT TRADITIONAL COLONIALISM.
WANTED TO DOMINATE UNDEVELOPED REGIONS.
KEEP OTHERS OUT. (ESPECIALLY OUT OF
CHINA.)
PHILIPPINES - STEPPING STONE TO CHINA?
OPEN DOOR POLICY, 1899.
DEMANDED EUROPEAN POWERS STOP.
CHINA POWERLESS AFTER - SINO/JAPANESE WAR
(1894-1895)
1898 & 1899 BRITISH WANT SHARE OF CHINA.
9/5/1899 - U.S. SENDS CIRCULAR LETTER (TO
U.S. EMBASSIES IN BERLIN, RUSSIA,
LONDON, PARIS, ROME, TOKYO).
WANTED ASSURANCES THAT NO POWER WOULD
DISCRIMINATE AGAINST THEIR POWERS IN
CHINA.
ALL PARTIES EVASIVE.
U.S. CONSTRUED ANSWERS AS ACCEPTANCE.
ANNOUNCED "OPEN DOOR -POLICY AS FINAL AND
DEFINITIVE."
PARTITIONING CHINA
ALL NATIONS TO BE TREATED EQUALLY.
US. WANTED OPEN DOOR IN CHINA.
CORNERSTONE OF U.S. FOREIGN POLICY.
CAUSED BOXER REBELLION IN CHINA.
U.S. SENT 5,000 TROOPS.
SOON RUSSIA AND JAPAN FOUGHT OVER CHINA.
MYTH OF AMERICA'S DESTINY
U.S. FOOLED BY SO CALLED AMERICAN "SPECIAL
MISSION"
AMERICANS CHOSEN BY GOD TO LEAD REST OF
WORLD.
U.S. LATE IN COLONY RACE.
1890 FRONTIER CLOSED / NO MORE LAND.
1893 FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER.
U.S. INSTITUTIONS COME FROM FRONTIER
EXPERIENCE.
A SURVIVAL ETHIC.
ONLY EXPANSION LEFT WAS OVERSEAS.
REALITY BEHIND THE MYTH
GERMANY, JAPAN ARMAMENT THREATENED BRITAIN
/ U.S.
CHINA TOTTERING, UP FOR GRABS.
AMERICA ISOLATIONIST FOR MANY YEARS.
NOT WORKING.
AMERICA'S TRADE COULD BE SHUT OFF IF OTHER
NATIONS EXPANDED EMPIRES AND U.S. DIDN'T.
NEW FOREIGN POLICY
HAWAII IMPORTANT BECAUSE OF GOOD HARBORS.
PHILANDER KNOX (SEC. OF STATE, 1909-1913)
JUSTIFIED 2,600 TROOPS TO HONDURAS,
NICARAGUA BECAUSE OF MONROE DOCTRINE.
1903 - PANAMA A PROVINCE OF COLUMBIA.
COLUMBIA NOT HAPPY W/ DEAL FOR CANAL.
ROOSEVELT SUPPORTED PANAMANIAN
NATIONALISTS TO REVOLT.
SENT U.S. WARSHIPS TO PREVENT COLUMBIA
FROM CRUSHING REVOLT.
11/6/1903 U.S. RECOGNIZES PANAMA'S
INDEPENDENCE.
TO GET PANAMA CANAL WAS TO BE IN
NICARAGUA. (PART OF COLUMBIA).
11/18/1903 U.S. SIGNS TREATY W/ FRENCH
HEAD IN NICARAGUA (PART OF
COLUMBIA) OF NEW PANAMA CANAL CO. TO BUILD
CANAL THROUGH PANAMA.
PANAMANIAN GOVT. MAD BECAUSE THEY NOT PART
OF TREATY.
PANAMA CANAL MOST IMPORTANT ACTION OF
THEODORE ROOSEVELT.
1904 - ROOSEVELT POLICY STATED IN
(ROOSEVELT COROLLARY TO MONROE
DOCTRINE)
A COUNTRY THAT COMMITTED CHRONIC WRONG
DOING WOULD REQUIRE THE U.S. TO
INTERVENE AS INTERNATIONAL POLICE POWER.
TAFT - DOLLAR DIPLOMACY
WILSON - MISSION DIPLOMACY
ANTI-IMPERIALIST, WM. JENNINGS BRYAN SEC.
OF STATE, PACIFISTS).
U.S. IN INFORMAL ALLIANCE W/G BRITAIN.
W.W.I - U.S. FROM NEUTRALITY TO WAR
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR - ONLY WAR TO CREATE
COLONIES IN ANOTHER
HEMISPHERE.
MCKINLEY - NECESSARY TO INSURE PEACE &
BRING ORDER TO PHILIPPINES.
HE REALLY WANTED TO REMOVE TEMPTATION FROM
BRITAIN, GERMANY / JAPAN.
MISGUIDED POLITICAL AMBITIONS.
1897-1901 - MCKINLEY STARTED
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.
1901-1909 - T. ROOSEVELT CONTINUED IT.
NO UNDERSTANDING OF U.S. ROLE IN WORLD.
MCKINLEY DID NOT THINK "LITTLE BROWN MEN"
WOULD OBJECT TO AUTHORITY.
GOOD INTENTIONS OF U.S.
SMALL GROUP OF INSURGENTS WOULD NOT DARE
RESIST THE GREAT POWER OF U.S.
US. THOUGHT REVOLT WOULD BE PUT DOWN
QUICKLY.
FILIPINOS CAN'T GOVERN THEMSELVES.
U.S. UNDERESTIMATED FILIPINOS WILL TO
RESIST OUTSIDE OF MANILA.
INSURGENTS UNDERESTIMATED U.S. WILL TO
CONTROL PHILIPPINES.
INSURGENTS DID NOT THINK U.S. WOULD INVEST
LIVES. (THOUGHT
ANTI-IMPERIALISTS IN US WERE STRONGER.)
HITLER THOUGHT SAME THING
BEFORE W.W.II.
KING GEORGE THOUGHT LOYALISTS WERE
STRONGER BEFORE REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
FALSE HOPE ON BOTH SIDES.
U.S. ANTI-IMPERIALIST DID NOTHING AFTER
WAR BEGAN.
POLITICIANS BELIEVED U.S. CAN DO BETTER
FOR FILIPINOS THAN THEY CAN DO FOR
THEMSELVES. (THE SAME AS SOME PRESIDENTS
SAY ABOUT CITIZENS)
BELIEVED PHILIPPINES HAD WEALTH OF RAW
MATERIAL: WOULD EXPAND MARKETS.
HENRY CABOT LODGE - PHILIPPINES A NATURAL
EXPANSION OF ANGLO-SAXON
CIVILIZATION.
126,000 AMERICANS FOUGHT IN WAR.
4,200 AMERICANS KILLED.
FILIPINOS LOST 20,000 IN COMBAT.
200,000 MORE IN RELATED CAUSES.
AMERICANS DID NOT KNOW OF LOSSES.
7,000 MILES FROM HOME.
AMERICAN ARMY ONLY 28,000 MEN AT START.
ACCEPTED VOLS. (ROUGH RIDERS)
IN PAST, MEN USED GUNS.
REQUIRED LITTLE TRAINING / WAR SIMPLE,
COULD MOBILIZE FAST.
U.S. ENTERED WAR UNPREPARED / UNTRAINED /
POORLY EQUIPPED.
NEGLECT OF ARMY CAUSED MANY DEATHS.
FEW DOCTORS / NOT ENOUGH EQUIPMENT.
1815-1914
GOOD BALANCE OF POWER.
TREATIES BY KINGS, NOT HEADS OF STATE.
NO REVENGE.
BEGINNING OF NATIONALISM, (PATRIOTISM GONE
CRAZY)
PROPAGANDA.
1896 - 1916
20 YEAR MIL. BUILDUP.
"BATTLESHIP" NAVY CREATED.
TECH. PROGRESS, EXPLOSIVES, ARMS, SUBS,
AIRPLANES.
HERITAGE TO 1914
LOUISIANA CAME BY LUCK IN 1803.
U.S. ESCAPED DISASTER IN WAR OF 1812.
FLORIDA BY THREAT, PAYMENT.
TALKED GB. OUT OF OREGON TERR. (54/40 OR
FIGHT.)
CONNIVED MEX. INTO WAR.
GOT SW AND CAL.
PURCHASED ALASKA FROM RUSSIA - CHEAP.
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR DELIVERED HAWAII /
GUAM / PHILIPPINES / PUERTO RICO.
OTTO VON BISMARCK - A SPECIAL PROVIDENCE
FOR FOOLS, DRUNKARDS, AND THE U.S.
POOR MEXICO -- SO FAR FROM GOD; SO CLOSE
TO THE U.S.
U.S. FOREIGN POLICY TO 1890
STAY OUT OF EUROPEAN DISPUTES.
TAKE ADVANTAGES OF OPPORTUNITIES IN N.
AMERICA.
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF EUROPEAN DIFFICULTIES.
RUN THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. (MONROE
DOCTRINE)
CONTINENTAL EXPANSION.
GREAT WONDER - WHY DID U.S. NOT TAKE MORE?
(CANADA & MEXICO?)
SPARSE POPULATION TO NORTH.
MEXICO WEAK. / UNORGANIZED.
US. SEPARATED BY OCEANS ON EAST AND WEST.
PARTICIPATE IN E. ASIAN & W. RECOGNIZE DE
FACTO REGIMES.
DID NOT EXPORT DEMOCRACY BY PACIFIC
AFFAIRS.
FORCE
NO LARGE STANDING ARMIES.
MAINTAIN POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE,
NEUTRALITY.
GEO. WASHINGTON "NO NATION CAN BE TRUSTED
FURTHER THAN ITS OWN NATIONAL
INTEREST."
AMERICAN'S HAVE RIGHT TO TRADE W/ ANYONE,
EVEN BELLIGERENTS. (IN NON MIL.
GOODS).
NOT ACCEPTED BY GB (MORE DIFFICULTY AS
WARS BECAME GLOBAL)
U.S. SEPARATED BY OCEANS.
WANTED UNLIMITED MOVEMENT.
GB - WORLD'S DOMINANT SEA POWER.
1900-1950 - AMERICAN DIPLOMACY
RESTRUCTURED.
ADMINISTRATION VERY IDEALISTIC.
U.S. POLICY-ABSTRACT - MORAL PRINCIPALS /
GOALS UNACHIEVABLE W/EXISTING POWER.
ROOSEVELT COROLLARY - U.S. WILL PROTECT
LATIN AMER. FROM FINANCIAL WRONG
DOING. (EVEN FROM THEMSELVES.)
OPEN DOOR NOTES
1899 - (1ST) - POSSIBLE - WOULD RECOGNIZE
SPHERES OF INFLUENCE.
OPEN TRADING.
1900 (2ND) - NOTE NOT POSSIBLE.
U.S. WOULD PRESERVE CHINA'S TERRITORY &
ADMIN. ENTITY.
WOULD PROVIDE IMPARTIAL TRADE W/ ALL PARTS
OF CHINA.
1900 - BOXER REBELLION (SOCIETY OF
TRADITIONALIST CHINESE).
REVOLTED AGAINST GOVT. & WESTERN PRESENCE
/ INFLUENCE.
242 MISSIONARIES KILLED.
19,000 INTERNATIONAL TROOPS SENT IN.
3,000 WERE U.S.
AFTER REBELLION RUSSIA HAD 50,000 TROOPS
LEFT IN MANCHURIA.
JAPAN MOVED INTO KOREA.
ROOSEVELT -- ONE WOULD CHECK THE
OTHER. RUSSIA / JAPAN)
1904 - JAPAN ATTACKED PORT ARTHUR IN
MANCHURIA.
BEGAN RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. (ROOSEVELT HAPPY
/ SUPPORTS JAPAN)
JAPAN WINNING TOO MANY BATTLES.
U.S. CONCERNED JAPAN MIGHT SHUT U.S. /
RUSSIA OUT OF CHINA.
ROOSEVELT SHIFTED SUPPORT TO RUSSIA (SENDS
TROOPS TO RUSSIA TO STOP JAPS).
ROOSEVELT PRESSURED JAPAN & RUSSIA TO
TERMS. (JAPAN UNHAPPY)
U.S. NOW ENTANGLED IN TREATIES W/COUNTRIES
OF LATIN AMER. / EUROPE / ASIA.
U.S. - RUTHERFORD B. HAYS’ OPEN DOOR
POLICY FOR CHINA IN EFFECT.
REALIST
WORLD IS NATION STATE.
EACH STATE DEFENDS OWN INTEREST.
A NATION CHOOSES WHICH INTEREST TO FIGHT
FOR.
WHICH TO NEGOTIATE FOR.
ACCEPT WORLD AS IT EXISTS. (NOT AS THEY
WHICH IT EXISTS).
WORK WITH THAT FRAMEWORK.
PESSIMISTIC ABOUT HUMAN NATURE.
LOOKS AT PAST. / HISTORY.
BELIEVES PROGRESS SLOW. (TAKES TIME TO
CHANGE THINGS).
WARS FOUGHT FOR ACHIEVABLE GOALS.
TODAY'S ENEMY - TOMORROW’S ALLY.
TOTAL VICTORY REDISTRIBUTES POWER.
CREATES MORE PROBLEMS THAN RESOLVES.
ALLOW ROOM TO RETREAT. / FOR SELF AND FOE.
AVOID HUMILIATION OF EITHER SIDE.
NO CULTURE / NATIONS SHARE SAME VALUES.
IDEALIST
OPTIMISTIC ABOUT HUMAN NATURE.
BELIEVES IN RAPID PROGRESS.
LOOKS TO FUTURE.
IN WORLD OF DEMOCRACY, WAR CANNOT EXIST.
AMER. VALUES UNIVERSAL.
BOTH LEAVE OUT UNIQUE / FORTUITOUS LUCK) /
EMOTION / IRRATIONAL / FORCE OF
MOMENTUM.
LARGE STANDING ARMY WHEN NO IMMEDIATE
FOREIGN THREAT - A LUXURY.
NAVY GREW BECAUSE EMPHASIS ON DEFENSE.
WILSON / F. ROOSEVELT (IDEALIST)
BEST OF THE WAR TIME PRESIDENTS.
PROGRESSIVE.
LIBERAL.
DEMOCRAT.
WILSON: U.S. MOST INTELLECTUAL PRESIDENT.
WILSON'S FOREIGN POLICY
IDEALISTIC. MORALISTIC, PEOPLE CAN SOLVE
PROBLEMS.
GOD DIRECTED ALL PEOPLES.
U.S. HAS NO LUST FOR POWER/RICHES.
SPECIAL MISSION / RESPONSIBILITY.
BRING PEACE / DEMOCRACY TO WORLD.
ALL PEOPLE CAPABLE OF SELF-GOVERNMENT.
THOUGHT HIS IDEAS UNIVERSAL.
NEGLECTED MEX. CRISIS OF CORRUPT
DICTATORS.
WOULD NOT RECOGNIZE GOVERNMENTS IN POWER
BY FORCE. (MEXICO)
CHINA-GOV'T BY FORCE).
NONRECOGNITION SAME AS INTERFERENCE.
ENCOURAGES OPPOSITION GROUPS.
WILSON CONCERNED WITH PURITY OF
MOTIVATION.
WHEN WILSON BECAME PRES. - 40,000 AMERICANS.
LIVING IN MEXICO.
DICTATOR PORFIRIO DIAZ (FRIENDLY)
OVERTHROWN BY REFORMER FRANCISCO
MADERO.
MADERO OVERTHROWN, MURDERED BY VICTORIANO
HUERTA (HEAD OF MEX. ARMY).
1913-1921 WOODROW WILSON PRES.
WILSON REFUSED TO RECOGNIZE HUERTA
(DE-FACTO HEAD OF MEX. GOV'T.)
WILSON USED MIL. INTERVENTION.
FORCED HUERTA OUT.
CIVIL WAR FOLLOWED FORM VENUSTIANO
CARRANZA UNTIL FRANCISCO "PANCHO"
VILLA.
WILSON SUPPORTS CARRANZA W/ ARMS.
VILLA DEFEATED / HATES U.S.
EARLY 1916 - PANCHO VILLA EXECUTES 17
AMERICANS FROM TRAIN IN MEXICO.
(CIVIL ENGINEERS).
WILSON DOES NOTHING.
3/1916 - VILLA LEADS SMALL ARMY INTO
COLUMBUS NM / KILLS MANY.
WILSON SENDS BRIGADIER GEN.(BLACKJACK)
JOHN PERSHING AFTER VILLA (INTO MEXICO).
CAN'T FIND VILLA / RUNS INTO MEX.
ARMY LOSE SEVERAL IN BATTLES.
ACTS OF WAR COMMITTED.
1916 PERSHING LOST 12 MEN, 23 CAPTURED.
BOTH SIDES BACKED OFF.
BAD FEELINGS LASTED MANY YRS.
1/1917 - WILSON FINALLY RECALLS PERSHING.
RECOGNIZES CARRANZA GOV'T.
TAMPICO INCIDENT
EIGHT AMERICANS (SAILORS) ACCIDENTALLY
ARRESTED FROM SHIP IN MEXICAN PORT.
STUMBLED INTO WAR ZONE.
RELEASED IMMEDIATELY.
ADMIRAL HENRY MAYO FURIOUS.
DEMANDED HOIST AMER. FLAG IN PROMINENT
PLACE, SALUTE IT W/21 GUN SALUTE.
GERMAN SHIP W/ARMS ON WAY TO VERACRUZ.
WILSON ORDERED NAVY TO TAKE VERACRUZ.
SHIP LANDED ELSEWHERE.
OLD FOLK SAYING, "POOR MEXICO, SO FAR FROM
GOD, SO CLOSE TO THE U.S."
ELECTION OF 1916
1912 - WILSON WON IN ONLY BECAUSE T.
ROOSEVELT SPLIT REP. PARTY IN
1908?
REPUBLICAN PARTY IGNORED T. ROOSEVELT.
NOMINATED CHAS. EVANS HUGHES (FORMER GOV.
OF N.Y.)
FOR 1916 RE-ELECTION -- WILSON RAN ON "HE
KEPT US OUT OF WAR."
ELECTION VERY CLOSE.
WILSON WENT TO BED THINKING HE HAD LOST.
W.W.I COMING
W.W.I TRIUMPH / TRAGEDY FOR AMER. PEOPLE.
CREATED TEMP. OPPORTUNITIES FOR BLACKS /
WOMEN / FARMERS.
CLIMAX TO PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT.
POWER AND INFLUENCE OF FED. GOV'T. GREW.
CREATED GREAT ADMIN. BUREAUCRACY.
W. WILSON'S WAR TO END ALL WARS.
"TO MAKE THE WORLD SAFE FOR DEMOCRACY."
STIMULATED PRIDE / PATRIOTISM IN U.S.
4,791,172 AMERICANS SERVED.
2 MILLION WENT OVERSEAS.
230,074 WOUNDED / 48,909 DIED.
SUMMER 1914 - GREAT WAR BEGAN IN EUROPE.
9 MILLION DEAD EUROPEANS.
1,400 FRENCH.
1,700 RUSSIAN.
1,000 AUSTRIANS.
1,950 GERMAN.
440 BELGIANS.
1,800 BRITISH.
1,500 ITALIANS.
115 AMERICANS.