SOCIETY AND POLITICS IN THE EARLY REPUBLIC

Free blacks moved to New York in 1790s because the city contained a large black population.

Poor city design was not a problem for national officials during their early years of residence in the District of Columbia.

In his inaugural address, Jefferson pledged his administration to the task of reconciling political differences.

Federalists passed the Judiciary Act of 1801 to deny the Jeffersonians full control of the government.

The Jeffersonians sought to remove several opposition judges from the bench.

The doctrine of judicial review refers to the power of the Supreme Court to judge the constitutionality of laws and executive behavior.

Jeffersonians regarded an active, expanding central government as potentially dangerous to personal liberties.

Under Jefferson, the federal government built the National road, reduced the national debt, and abolished unnecessary government positions.

To preserve and promote equality and liberty, the Jeffersonians advocated a policy of rapid territorial expansion.

The primary source of revenue for the federal government from 1790 to 1820 was custom duties.

In January 1803, James Monroe was sent to Paris with instructions to purchase New Orleans and Florida.

The French were willing to sell Louisiana because there was a recent black rebellion in Haiti, there was a new threat of war with England, and France knew that the US. had designs on the territory anyway.

In 1800, 83% of the American labor force was engaged in agriculture.

The major purpose of Republican land laws was to speed the transfer of public land into private hands.

The Lewis and Clark expedition (1803-1805), proved the feasibility of an overland route to the Pacific.

By 1830, human pressure for available land, demand for a verity of wood products, and demand for heating fuel had contributed to altering forests of the Northeast.

The size of urban areas in the early 1800s is indicated by the term "walking Cities."

Short-staple cotton was hardy, but it became a popular crop only after the invention of the cotton gin.

The dominant objective of federal Indian policy from 1790 10 1820 was the acquisition of Native American land through agreements.

For Native Americans, expansion of the fur trade generated patterns of dependence on the white man.

Advocates of assimilation regarded Native Americans as likely converts to Christianity and American civilization.

The Cherokee people adopted some aspects of the white man’s culture such an adoption of a written constitution, concept of private property, and ownership of slaves.

In response to white expansion, the Shawnee and Creek nations chose paths of armed resistance.

The message of the Second Great Awakening emphasized equality of all believers before God that each person was responsible for their own soul, ad for lifting up the downtrodden and doing good works.

According to the records, from 1816 to 1821 the almshouses of New York listed as residents more women and children than men.

The Jeffersonians pursued peace with special urgency because they feared war would increase government powers and thus restrict liberties.

In April 1806, Congress passed the Non-Importation Act, which prohibited the importation of English goods that could by produced domestically or acquired elsewhere.

The Embargo Act of 1807 proved to by an ill-fated decision by the Jefferson administration because it provoked economic depression and domestic bitterness within the US.

The War of 1812 resulted in limited military success for either belligerent.

As a result of the War of 1812, Andrew Jackson emerged as a military hero and potential political leader.

The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 indicated the desire of the US. to oppose any European plans to help Spain regain its American colonies.

The Federalists Party lost influence as a national political force because the Democratic Republicans adopted their program of national economic development.

President Madison urged passage of a constitutional amendment to allow federal funding of internal improvements.

As a result of the Missouri Compromise a boundary line was established for further expansion of slavery.

As president, John Quincy Adams opposed personal appearances geared to public relations.

A new surge of voter participation in the US. during the 1820s might be partially attributed to the disappearance of gentry-dominated politics.

Jefferson’s litany (lengthy recitation) of principles reverberated with the dark experience

of the1790s.

CURRENTS OF CHANGE IN THE NORTHEAST AND THE OLD NORTHWEST

From 1820 to 1860, the American economy witnessed a doubling of per capita income.

The abundance of natural resources, increasing population, and an influx of European capital contributed to American economic growth from 1829 to 1860.

During the1820s and 1830s, canal-building projects provided cheap and reliable access to distant markets and goods.

By the late 1830s, the Old Northwest had become the country’s granary.

The dramatic rise in railroad construction in the two decades before the Civil War contributed to the trend toward regional specialization.

State governments promoted economic growth by underwriting bonds for improvement projects.

Between 1819 and1824, a series of Supreme Court decisions established the basic principle that contracts were binding legal instruments.

Intangible factors contributing to America’s antebellum economic growth included the entrepreneurial mentality and mechanical nature or most Americans.

Horace Mann championed professional teacher training as an educational reform.

Manufacturers primarily valued education for their workers because it encouraged habits of discipline and productivity.

Antebellum advocates of public education hoped that the schools would counter unsettling effects of economic change.

The early mechanization of the cloth industry supplemented rather than replaced home manufacturing.

The women who came to Lowell for mill jobs were the first women to labor outside their homes in large numbers.

Women workers at the Lowell mills lived in closely supervised company boardinghouses.

A short-lived strike by Lowell’s women workers in February 1834 occurred in protest of wage cuts.

By the 1850s, the hiring of male workers, arrival of Irish immigrants, and the use of segregated living quarters all were factors that undermined the united action of women mill workers.

For outworkers, the invention of the sewing machine in the mid-1840s led bosses to expect greater volume of work.

For most Cincinnati workers before the Civil War, a manufacturing job imposed a form of wage slavery.

In the decades before the Civil War, Cincinnati workers insisted they were denied a fair share of profits.

Antebellum labor protest and union activities were speeded by the leadership of skilled workers.

The continuing urban growth of New York City from 1820 to 1860 resulted primarily from its role in domestic and foreign trade.

Urban growth in antebellum Philadelphia outpaced the government’s provision of public access.

A dramatic rise in the concentration of wealth in the US. from 1820 to 1860 hardened class lines.

The role of the ideal woman in antebellum America was to create a clean and wholesome home for family life.

The concept of domesticity implied the moral superiority of women.

Preventing crimes or discovering offenses was not generally perceived as a proper task for antebellum American Constables.

Riots in Philadelphia in August 1834 stemmed primarily from racial tension.

The participants in the Philadelphia riots of August 1834 came from the bottom of the occupational and economic ladder.

In most northern states, free blacks were segregated from whites in public facilities.

From 1820 to 1860, more eastern farmers used scientific methods to increase profits.

The Northwest became tied to antebellum eastern markets with the increasing production of wheat.

Although the American economy developed rapidly between 1820 and 1860, expansion was cyclic in nature, interrupted by periods of depression.

SLAVERY AND THE OLD SOUTH

The lesson Frederick Douglass learned to survive slavery was to understand and outwit his oppressors.

The most recent historical interpretations of slavery have viewed the institution through life in the slave quarters.

The majority of white Southerners in antebellum America owned no slaves at all.

The inventions of the cotton gin in 1793tied the southern economy to cotton production.

Increasing world supply, self-reproducing supply of cheap slave labor, and low-cost steamboat transportation on the Mississippi River contributed to the South’s antebellum cotton boom.

Southerners migrated southwestward in huge numbers between 1830 and 1860, seeking new lands for the production of cotton.

Laws to control the domestic slave trade were poorly enforced and usually short-lived.

The majority of slaves were engaged in agricultural labor.

Slavery was unprofitable for the South as a region because of the slaveholders undiversified capital investments.

From $600 in 1844, the price of a prime fieldhand increased to $1800 by 1860. This represented an increase of 300%.

The economic growth of the slaveholding South blocked opportunities for non-slave-holders.

Most whites in the antebellum South regarded slaveholding as a path to upward economic mobility.

The yeoman farmers of the South were largely self-sufficient.

Poor diet and bad living conditions, spread of diseases such as hookworm and malaria, and debilitating hear and poverty victimized the poorest whites of the South.

On small farms with five or fewer slaves, masters were most likely to perceive their slaves as intimates and fellow workers.

The cultivation of rice required substantial investment in labor ad equipment, careful supervision of slaves and elaborate irrigation systems.

For southern white women, Mary Boykin Chesnut regarded the sorest spot of slavery as the double standard of plantation sexuality.

Prior to 1830, southerners generally defended slavery as a necessary evil.

Southerners argued that the Constitution offered legal justification for slavery because of the 3/5ths clause determining the status of slaves for purposes for representation and taxes, Missouri Compromise opening up lands for the western expansion of slavery and mandate for the return of runaway slaves from one state to another.

Wealthy southern planters justified slavery in terms of white superiority because such a defense deflected potential class antagonisms among whites.

House slaves, in contrast to field slaves, had less privacy.

Following the convergence of Nat Turner’s revolt and William Lloyd Garrison’s publication of the abolitionist Liberator in 1831, state laws prohibiting manumission were passed in the South.

Many slaveholders urged their slaves to attend church because it offered the slaveholder a form of social control.

Slave spirituals reiterated one basic Christian theme: a chosen people were held captive but would be delivered.

In the slave folktales, Brer Rabbit knows how to use his cunning to outwit his enemies.

Unable to understand black protest, a southern doctor coined the term drapetomania to describe the disease causing slaves to run away.

The slave conspiracies of Gabriel Prosser in 1800 and Denmark Versy in 1822 were both thwarted by internal betrayal by fellow slaves.

Latin American slaves challenged their masters more often than their North American counterparts because in Latin America a greater imbalance existed of blacks and whites.

The free black population of the US. increased from 1820 to 1860 because of continuing immigration of blacks from Africa.

SHAPING NORTH AMERICA IN THE ANTEBELLUM AGE

In contrast to the Great Awakening of the 1730s, the Second Great Awakening began in New York and the Old Northwest.

Preachers of the Second Great Awakening such as Charles Finney emphasized emotion.

Finney’s idea of the utility of benevolence included individual reformation, reforming of society, and eradicates sin from the world.

Factors that contributed to a reform impulse in the US. during the 1830s included Romantic belief in man’s natural goodness, activist tendencies in Whig political ideology, and anxiety over profound economic and social changes.

Essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson urged Americans to look inward for knowledge and self-reliance.

Elected president in 1828, Andrew Jackson won a resounding majority of popular ballots.

American political activity in the 1820s aimed at widespread voter organizations and participation.

Andrew Jackson’s early national reputation stemmed mainly from his military victory over the British at New Orleans in 1815.

The campaign between Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams in 1828 degenerated into a nasty but entertaining contest.

One of Andrew Jackson’s key convictions as president was to protect the principle of majority rules.

As president, Andrew Jackson asserted his power most dramatically through use of the veto.

Southerners opposed high protective tariff rates because they feared resultant increased prices for manufactured goods.

John Calhoun argued that a state had the power to nullify an unconstitutional federal law.

During the 1830s, the Cherokee Indians suffered hardships and death in a forced removal to Oklahoma.

State bankers needing credit would have been most likely to favor recharter of the Second Bank of the US.

Andrew Jackson argued that the national bank helped the rich by providing them with special privileges.

As a result of Jackson’s Specie Circular of 1836, investors panicked in a rush to convert assets into cash.

During the depression of the late 1830s, the wages of workers fell by 30 to 50 % within two years.

According to the Democrats of the 1830s, the government should allow Americans freedom to follow their individual interests.

In the election of 1840, the Whigs chose John Tyler for vice-president to attract southern votes.

For members of his perfectionist community at Oneida, John Humphrey Noyes advocated communal marriage,

Whether secular or religious, the utopian communities of the antebellum era failed because recurring problems of unstable leadership and financial bickering, public hostility engendered by unorthodox beliefs or practices, and waning of enthusiasm after initial settlement.

Utopian leader William Miller lost credibility by his failure to predict accurately the Second Coming of Christ.

The Mormons faced public hostility because of their unorthodox sexual practices.

During the1`840s and1850s, temperance advocates lobbied for passage of local option laws.

Antebellum Americans joined the temperance crusade, as they did other reform societies, largely to seek relief from an uncertain and changing world.

Panaceas offered by reformers for antebellum ailments were bathing and water purges of the body, spiritualist séances to cure problems of the mind, and special diets and exercise programs.

Like many perfectionist reformers, Dorothea Dix believed that special asylums could reform society’s outcasts.

The trade unions fared better than the labor parties in the 1830s because trade union programs were more immediately practical.

Over 2.3rds of workers’ strikes between 1834 and 1836 were held for higher wages.

The American Anti-Slavery Society, formed by William Lloyd Garrison, advocated the immediate and total abolition of slavery.

The primary tactic used by abolitionists in their crusade against slavery was one of moral suasion through speeches and literature.

Black abolitionist Frederick Douglass viewed discrimination as much a problem as slavery.

Anti-abolitionists failed to help their cause by engaging in mob attacks against leading abolitionists.

The Declaration of Sentiments drawn up in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 asserted that all men and women are created equal.

For 72 years, the major goal of the women’s rights movement remained the right to vote.

The French aristocrat Alexis de Tocqueville felt a major problem in the US. during the 1830s was the tyranny of majority opinion.

MOVING WEST

In 1815, Spain held title to the present-day lands of Texas, Utah, and California.

According to the Convention of1818 and the Occupation treaty of1827, the US. and Great Britain agreed to the joint occupation of Oregon.

Americans were attracted to Texas in the 1820s by the lure of cheap land for cotton cultivation.

Eastern Indian tribes from the South and Old Northwest, whom the American government forcibly relocated in the West served ironically as agents of white civilization.

In his popular Emigrants’ Guide to Oregon and California in 1845, Lansford Hastins provided both practical information as well as encouragement for frontier settlers.

The slogan Manifest Destiny referred to the conviction of Americans in the 1840s that the US. had obligation to spread across the continent.

In the transcontinental Treaty of1819, the US accepted a southern border excluding Texas.

As a result of Mexican restrictions in Texas, American settlers plotted a revolution.

With the victory at San Jacinto in 1836, Texas gained its independence from Mexico.

Democrats such as Lewis Cass and Stephen Douglas supported the annexation of Texas on the grounds that it would spread the benefits of American Civilization.

President Polk sent his secret agent, John L Slidell, to Mexico City to buy Upper California and New Mexico.

President Polk fired diplomat Nichol Trist for offering too much money for too little land.

Factors that nourished an American conviction that California must become a part of the US. were the gradual recognition of California’s fine harbors, favorable position of California for the China trade, and suspicion that other nations had designs on the region.

The town of Sante Fe was occupied without a shot by American forces in 1846.

In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, the US. agreed to guarantee the civil and political rights of former Mexican citizens.

In reference to the Oregon question, President Polk supported a division of the territory at the 49^th parallel.

Between 1842 and 1845 in Oregon, American settlers wrote a constitution and elected a legislature.

Britain agreed to a division of the Oregon territory at the 49^th parallel so long as it retained possession of Vancouver Island.

Most of the emigrants who headed for the Far West were white and American-born.

Perhaps most emigrants to the Far West were motivated by dreams of bettering their lives by cultivating the land.

The Preemption Acts during the1830s and 1840s encouraged westward migration by protection of squatters’ rights.

For most emigrants on the overland trail difficulties multiplied as the trip lengthened.

The first task facing pioneer farmers was to locate a suitable claim.

In Oregon, early settlers seemed most anxious and able to establish a political system.

Obstacles hindering the organization of churches and schools in the frontier communities included dispersion of the population, chronic shortage of cash, and geographic mobility of the settlers.

In contrast to the agricultural frontier, migrants to the mining frontier were more intent on making a quick profit.

Corporations with significant capital and technological resources made most of the profits from mining camps.

Between 1848 and 1883, California gold fueled the agriculture and commercial development of California and Oregon.

The Mormons emigrants to Utah concentrated on converting rather than killing Native Americans.

Most of the Plains Indians lived a nomadic lifestyle in pursuit of the buffalo.

The primary cause for Indian-white conflict by the late 1840s was the destruction of Indian grass, timber, and buffalo by white emigrants.

In return for various presents offered by the US. government at the Fort Laramie Council of 1851, participating Indian chiefs pledged their tribes would limit their movements to prescribed areas.

For Mexicans living in territory annexed by the US., the influx of Anglos often meant increased oppression rather than opportunity.

THE UNION IN PERIL

In the sixty years after the Constitutional Convention, compromise over questions relating to slavery had been possible because of the existence of a two-party system with intersectional membership.

The supporters of free soil in the territories argued that slavery was a moral evil and should not be extended, northern white farmers could not compete with large-scale slave labor, and the growing slave power of the South had to be restrained.

According to South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun, congress lacked the power to exclude slavery from the territories.

According to the doctrine of popular sovereignty, the decision to permit slavery in a territory would be made by the local territory legislature.

Factors that contributed to Zachary Taylor’s victory in the election of 1848 were successful evasion of the controversial slavery issue, heroic military exploits during the Mexican War, and Democratic defections to the Free Soil Party.

The provisions of the Compromise of 1850 upset the balance between free and slave states in the Union.

Northerners were offended by the provision of the Fugitive Slave Act that designated a higher fee for commissioners deciding to return rather than free a fugitive.

As a consequence of the Compromise of 1850, political parties realigned along sectional lines.

Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel, Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) achieved enormous popular success and impact.

During the early 1850s, political parties lost influence because of the standardization of various state political and economic procedures.

The election of 1852 was characterized by voter apathy and lackluster campaigns.

Harboring presidential ambitions, Stephen Douglas hoped to win the support of southern Democrats by recommending that the Kansas and Nebraska territories organize on the basis of popular sovereignty

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 reopened the question of slavery in the territories.

During the 1850s, William Walker was unsuccessful in his attempts to capture and control new slave lands in Latin America.

The Ostend Manifesto, a document intended to pressure Spain to sell Cuba to the US., was urged most by those who advocated the expansion of slavery.

Developments of the early 1850s seemed evidence of an aggressive expansionist South were writing of the Ostend Manifesto, negotiation of the Gasden Purchase, and passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

Members of the American Party feared Catholic immigrants of the 1840s and 1850s would par higher loyalty to the pope than to the president.

The majority of Republicans in the 18502 supported a government policy to prevent the expansion of slavery in the territories.

The election of a pro-slavery territorial legislature in D\Kansas in 1855 resulted from wholesale election fraud.

Radical Abolitionist John Brown led a massacre at Pottawatomi Creek.

The Republican Party appealed to Northerners by its support of policies favoring industrial growth and development.

In contrast to northerners, southerners emphasized the genteel life of an ordered society.

In the Dred Scott case, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress could not ban slavery in a territory.

The rejection of the Lecompton Constitution in 1858 meant that Kansas would remain a territory.

Abraham Lincoln believed that slavery should be placed on a course of ultimate extinction.

In the Freeport debate against Lincoln, Stephen Douglas argued that slavery could not exist without favorable local legislation.

In his raid on Harper Ferry, Virginia, John Brown intended to provoke a general uprising of slaves.

Northerners responded to John Brown’s raid on Harper's Ferry and his subsequent trial with outpourings of admiration and sympathy.

The Republic platform of1860 called for support of tariff protection, subsidized internal improvements, and a homestead bill.

For the election of1860, the Democrats named two candidates in two separate conventions.

South Carolina seceded from the Union in late 1860 in reaction to the election of a Republican candidate as president.

Following the secession of the Deep South in the winter of 1860 to 1861, most northerners anxiously waited to see what president-elect Lincoln would do.

In response to the crisis at Fort Sumpter, Abraham Lincoln sent a relief expedition of provisions only.

THE UNION SEVERED

In response to Fort Sumter both the North and South witnessed a tremendous outpouring of support.

The material assets of the North during the Civil War became effective only in the long run.

To secure Maryland for the Union, Lincoln arrested and detained southern sympathizers.

In Feb. 1861, the original seceding states created a provisional government emphasizing the sovereignty of the states.

For his cabinet, Lincoln selected important Republicans from different factions of the party.

Lincoln's early actions as president indicated that he intended to take responsibility for running his own administration.

Jefferson Davis was observed by his contemporaries as too preoccupied with details.

The use of the new, longer-range rifles during the Civil War produced a ghastly crop of dead men.

During the early years of the war in the East a stalemate developed as decisive victory eluded both sides.

The Battle of Bull Run was a prophetic one in that it convinced northerners of the need to confront and resolve logistic problems.

Placed in command of the union armies in 1861, Gen. George McClellan wished to win the war by maneuvering rather than fighting.

In the early western theater of the Civil War, Ulysses C. Grant displayed a military genius for setting large goals.

The casualties for the Battle of Shiloh Church were enormous because of the insufficient care of wounds on the battlefield.

During the early years of the Civil war, the northern navy concentrated on gaining footholds along the southern coast for a blockade.

Southerners thought that European nations would recognize and support the Confederacy because of the European's dependence upon southern cotton.

In contrast to the North, the South relied more heavily on the use of conscription to maintain their armed forces.

The largest civil disturbance of the 19th century occurred in New York City in early July 1963, as workers opposed to the draft rioted for three days.

The New York City draft riots of 1863exposed the racial and class antagonisms of northern society.

Political dissension is the South during the Civil War tended to be factional, petty, and often personal in nature.

The emancipation Proclamation freed slaves in unconquered parts of the Confederacy.

During the Civil War, the northern army was first to use black troops for combat duty.

At the Battle of Gettysburg, Gen. Robert E. Lee suffered losses so heavy that he could never mount another southern offensive.

As commander of the Union armies, Grant recommended a grim campaign of annihilation, using the North's superior might to destroy southern armies and resources.

During the war years, southern yeoman farmers suffered an economic decline.

The Civil War transformed American society as economic dislocations reduced the standard of living for most civilians.

The Civil War transformed race relations in the south as blacks proved increasingly unwilling to play a subservient role.

For American women, the Civil War provided opportunities for government service.

In the election of 1864, Democratic candidate George McClellan proclaimed the war a failure and demanded an armistice with the South.

In contrast to other wars involving American soldiers, the Civil War proved most deadly in terms of American lives.

During the Civil War, the Republicans passed legislation to provide farmers access to the public domain.

After Sumter, Lincoln swiftly called up the state militias, expanded the navy, and suspended habeas corpus (release a person from unlawful restraint)

Commanding considerable resources of patronage, governmental favors) Lincoln was able to line up officials behind his party and administration.

THE UNION RECONSTRUCTED

In trying to establish a policy for reconstruction of the South after the Civil War a conflict arose between Congress and the president about which had authority in the matter.

In 1865 at the end of the Civil War, the Democratic Party was in shambles organizationally.

In 1865, at the end of the Civil War, the southern states contrasted starkly with the economic prosperity of the northern states.

At the end of the Civil war, emancipated blacks often changed their manners toward whites to demonstrate their freedom.

In the years immediately following emancipation, the freedmen generally considered land ownership more important than political rights.

In the months immediately after the Civil War, the dominant emotion among southern whites was fear.

During the Reconstruction Era the black codes restricted the economic opportunities of the freedmen.

Andrew Johnson’s plan for reconstruction proved to be very lenient toward the South.

The election of 1866 was critical in determining the outcome of Reconstruction because the Republicans won an overwhelming majority in both houses of Congress.

In the reconstruction Acts of 1867, Congress divided the southern states into five military districts.

Congress impeached President Johnson for violating the Tenure of Office Act.

During the reconstruction period, northerners only reluctantly supported the idea of giving blacks the right to vote.

In the years immediately after the Civil War, the majority of the members of Congress feared the Republicans might lose control of the national government.

Chief among those who wanted to provide economic support for the freedmen after the Civil war was Thaddeus Stevens.

In an overall analysis, Congressional Reconstruction for the freedmen provided little economic security for blacks.

During the Reconstruction Era, the movement for women’s suffrage led to a split in the women’s movement.

In providing aid to the blacks after the Civil War, the Freedman’s Bureau was characterized by mixed success.

At the end of the Reconstruction period, southern blacks, in general remained economically dependent on southern whites.

During the Reconstruction period, southern tenant farmers concentrated on the cultivation of cotton.

In an attempt to improve their condition after freedom, blacks during the Reconstruction period often worked through their churches.

After the Civil War, as far as education was concerned, blacks tended to prefer teachers of their own race.

In the late 19^th century the black leader who believed that black suffrage would eventually lead to full citizenship rights for blacks in the US. Frederick Douglass.

Some white southerners supported the Republican governments that controlled the southern states during Reconstruction.

During the period of Reconstruction, black political leaders in the South sought mainly respect and equal opportunity for blacks.

Republican rule of the state governments in the South during Reconstruction led to some desirable reforms.

In attempting to regain control of the southern state governments during Reconstruction, southern Democrats often resorted to violence.

During the grant administration, the Republicans reduced their support for black voting rights in the South.

During and after the Civil War, the Republican Party supported policies that favored industrial development.

As a political leader President grant could best be described as often lacking in his judgment of others.

A major scandal of the Grant Administration concerning railroad construction was the Credit Mobilier

In the disputed election of 1876, the republicans succeeded in obtaining congressional approval for Hayes election by promising to support federal aid for southern railroad development.

Under President Johnson’s plan for reconstruction, the southern state governments attempted to restore the power of the prewar aristocracy. (a small privileged class)

President Johnson’s opposition to Congress’s plan for reconstruction forced moderate members of Congress into the radical camp, (Advocates sweeping changes)

The 15^th Amendment to the Constitution guaranteed suffrage rights to blacks (the right to vote)

Exodusters refers to blacks that attempted to migrate to Kansas after they were emancipated.

In the history of Reconstruction, redemption refers to recapture of control of the southern state governments by conservative white.