THREE WORLDS MEET / COLLIDE

By the 1500s, the Indians of the America had developed diverse and complex societies.

As a result of the agricultural revolution in the Americas, the members of native tribes grew in numbers and founded separate societies.

The Pueblo people of the American Southwest, encountered by the Spanish in the 1540s lived in carefully planned villages composed of large terraced buildings, each with many rooms.

In the 1600s, European explorers in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys were amazed to find hundreds of large ceremonial mounds.

The potential for conflict between Europeans and the indigenous peoples in North America stemmed primarily from different values concerning the use of the environment.

Archaeological studies of North America have suggested that Native American societies of the interior may have been more complex and stratified than previously thought.

In Cahokia, the center of a vast Mississippi culture reaching its peak around 1200 A.D., Native Americans constructed a gigantic earthen temple, developed and urban center, with outlying farms, manufactured products for local consumption, and engaged in long-distance trade.

In contrast to the Europeans, most natives of North America believed that land served as the basis of common sustenance.

Rather than personal wealth, natives of communal American societies valued personal valor.

In contrast to Europeans, Native Americans expressed religious beliefs in a less structured way.

At the time of contact with Europeans, Africa was a continent marked by diverse and elaborate cultures.

The West African kingdom of Ghana was destroyed by their religious strife caused by invasion of North African Muslims.

As elsewhere in the world, population growth and cultural development in Africa depended upon ecological conditions and geography.

In contrast to the fate of Africans enslaved in the Americas, the slaves in West African societies did not suffer a permanently servile condition.

According to the Magna Carta presented by members of the English aristocracy to their king in 1215, the members of Parliament would regularly to pass money bills.

The movement toward more intensive and profitable agriculture in the sixteenth century marked the first step toward industrial development in England.

The expansionist impulse of European monarchs in the latter fifteenth century was motivated by a desire to by pass Muslim merchants in trade with Asia and Africa.

Portugal became the early leader of European exploration.

Invented in the 1450s, the quadrant allowed a more precise measurement of latitude

In the latter half of the fifteenth century, Christopher Columbus argued that Europeans could reach the Indies by sailing west rather than east.

Spanish and Portuguese explorations of the fifteenth an sixteenth centuries stimulated the growth of western European economies.

According to Martin Luther, good works represented only the external evidence of grace won through faith.

The doctrines of Protestant leader John Calvin offered a system for both self-discipline and social control.

The population of the Americas dramatically declined following the arrival of Europeans primarily because of the lack of natural immunity among Native Americans to European diseases.

The massive flow of silver bullion from the Americas to Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries triggered a century of inflationary pressures.

The primary enterprise of the Portuguese in Brazil during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries involved the production of sugar.

Spain considered the northern borderlands of her New World empire important primarily as a site for missionary service.

The defeat of the Spanish Armada by England in 1588solidified Protestantism in England. fanned a nationalistic spirit in England, increased English interest in overseas exploration and colonization and brought a temporary stalemate in European religious wars.

English colonizing ventures in the New World differed from prior Spanish and Portuguese efforts in the English attempts were privately organized and financed.

A negative image of Native Americans among English settlers justified their claim that natives had disqualified themselves as rightful owners of the land.

By the time the Spanish arrived in the 1540s, the indigenous Pueblo people were using irrigation canals. Indigenous people refers to those who live naturally in an area.

Colonized people have regained their autonomy and cultural identity through wars of national liberation. Autonomy refers to a condition of self-government.

COLONIZING / INVADING A CONTINENT

The Puritan militia captain John Mason regarded the Native Americans of southern New England as the enemies of God who deserved to lose their land.

The first English attempts of colonization of Roanoke Island in the 1580s failed to establish successful relations with Native Americans.

The organizers of the Jamestown colony were motivated by a desire to make economic profits through mining and trade.

The kind of settlers that seemed least available and most desirable by John Smith for the first years of the Jamestown colony were farmers.

The Virginia Company attracted new settlers to its colony after 1609 by promising free land at the end of seven years labor for the company.

The economic salvation for the Virginia colony proved to be the cultivation of tobacco.

In the seventeenth-century colonies of Virginia and Maryland, indentured servants generally came from the lower rungs of the social ladder.

The primary cause for continuing conflicts between English colonists and Native Americans in Virginia was the steady encroachment by land-hungry settlers on Indian territories.

As a result of the Indian assault of 1622 upon the Virginia colony, the colonists pursued more ruthless and determined efforts to displace the Indians.

In the colony of Maryland, the Calvert family intended to offer a religious refuge to Catholics.

Status in Maryland's social hierarchy was determined primarily by one's competitive ability in the production of tobacco.

Chesapeake colonists of the seventeenth century maintained a frontier quality of life.

The Puritans of England wished to rid the Church of England of all Catholic beliefs and practices.

Individual freedom of thought and action, belief in America's special mission in the world, celebration of religious and cultural diversity, and separation of church and state are traits of American culture that might be traced to the Puritans.

Puritans decided to emigrate from England during the 1630s because of religious persecution, political repression, economic depression, and public degeneracy.

Unlike the Puritans, the Pilgrims separated from the Church of England.

To establish a community of pure Christians in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Puritans felt government should punish religious as well as civil transgressors.

In contrast to Virginia, the colony of Massachusetts Bay thrived almost from the beginning because the early Puritan settlers emigrated due to religious convictions rather than predatory instincts.

The puritans of New England failed to reach an accommodation with native Americans.

Puritan minister Roger Williams supported complete separation of church and state.

the distribution of land in the Puritan villages of Massachusetts Bay depended partly upon a man's usefulness to the community.

By the mid-seventeenth century, the French successfully developed the fur trade in Canada.

The Dutch colony of New Netherlands became the colony of New York following English takeover in 1664.

The architects of the Carolina colony intended to create a hereditary aristocracy of wealthy manor lords.

After experimenting with various crops, the colonists of South Carolina decided to concentrate upon the cultivation of rice.

By 1720, the population of South Carolina consisted mostly of black slaves.

The Society of friends, or Quakers renounced the use of force in human affairs.

Most English Protestants considered Quakers as dangerous fanatics because defer to superiors in their customs and speech, pay taxes in support of the Church of England, and sign witnesses' oath on the Bible.

Quakers first planted a North American colony in West Jersey.

In his colony, William Penn intended to blend peoples of all backgrounds in peaceful coexistence.

William Penn believed that the Indians should be compensated for their land.

Although designed as an experiment in harmony, Pennsylvania experienced an ironically turbulent growth because the absence of persecution eliminated a crucial binding element for Quakers.

New Englanders built more private and comfortable houses at an earlier stage than colonists in the Chesapeake because of the need of Southerners to invest available capital in labor.

The Pueblos were pushed to the point o revolt when the Spaniards began to seize their kivas.

While the Spanish reasserted their control over the Pueblos, they were not successful in reconquering Florida.

The Puritans set about building their utopia, and ideal of social and political perfection.

To a people charged with messianic zeal, (invoking the aura of a savior) the heathen Indians represented a mocking challenge.

MASTERING THE NEW WORLD

During a conflict-filled era from 1675-1715, American colonists sought mastery over both friendly and hostile Native American tribes.

The least likely destination of European slave traders in the 17th century would have been North America.

Europeans vied fiercely for possession of islands in the Caribbean to cultivate the growth of sugarcane.

The southern transition to black slave labor in the last quarter of the 17th century might be explained partly by the desire of elite white planters for a more permanent and pliable labor force.

Slavery never became the foundation of the northern colonial work force because labor intensive crops would not grow in colder climates

Historically, slavery had existed in many societies as the defining characteristic of the lowest social status.

By the early 18th century, most colonial legislatures enacted laws forbidding slaves the right to participate in the political process, engage in commercial activity or hold property, congregate in public or travel without permission, or enter into legal marriage of parenthood.

The elimination of slave rights by English settlers in the New World allowed masters to treat slaves with brutality and intimidation.

The typical master in colonial America wished to convert the slave into a mindless drudge who obeyed every command.

In contrast to slaves in the southern colonies, slaves in the northern colonies adapted to European ways much faster.

There was no North American parallel to the massive slave uprisings of the Caribbean of South America because in North America slaves rarely outnumbered whites in any area.

Religion and family life helped temper rebellion and offer comfort to colonial slaves.

The root of King Philip's War in New England stemmed from the anger of young Wampanoags at the colonists after attacks on their land base and political sovereignty.

Internal problems for the Indians, such as food shortages, disease, and defections were most instrumental in securing victory for the new England colonists in King Philip's Way.

Bacon's rebellion was not caused by colonial mistreatment of the Indians.

In response to Bacon's Rebellion, Governor Berkeley of Virginia declared Bacon a revel and ordered him arrested.

Throughout the 18th century, symbols carved on New England tombstones reflected the population's growing piety and introspection.

Bacon's Rebellion of 1676 relieved much of the social tension among white Virginians by opening additional lands for white settlers.

Life in the southern colonies remained volatile in the late 17th century mainly because of a lack of social cohesion.

According to the theory of mercantilism, colonies existed primarily to provide foodstuffs and raw materials.

The Navigation Act of 1660 listed colonial products that could be shipped only to England or to other English colonies.

England's passage of the Navigation Acts was prompted by her commercial rivalry with Holland.

after 1675, England enacted stricter imperial controls because of the demands of Parliament for greater colonial accountability.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 resulted in a series of colonial uprisings against royal governors.

The Glorious Revolution sparked political uprisings in New York, Maryland, and Virginia.

The colonial elite tried to foster social and economic stability by the maintenance of a highly stratified society.

The Salem witchcraft trials of 1692 reflected the hysterical response by one community to the anxiety of a tumultuous era.

The French explorer who laid claim to that part of the interior of North America known as Louisiana was Rene Robert de La Salle.

In the wars between New England and New France beginning in the late 17th century both powers sought to oust each other from the New World.

As a result of international warfare from 1689 to 1713 England extended her control in North America.

The American definition of slaves in non-human terms involved one of the great paradoxes (seeming contradiction) of modern history.

Native Americans had watched the colonizers erode their land base and compromise their sovereignty (supremacy of authority(

Among the barbarizing conditions of the New world, anarchy (absence of government authority) lurked just beyond every threshold.

THE BRITISH EMPIRE AND A COLONIAL SOCIETY

Colonial America in the 1st half of the 18th century experienced population growth and economic development.

In contrast to Europeans, colonial Americans by the 1720s suffered a lower mortality rate.

The largest number of immigrants to America in the eighteenth century arrived from Africa.

Most immigrants to colonial America after 1713 were slaves and indentured servants.

In contrast to their 17th century predecessors, indentured servants of the 18th century faced fewer chances of becoming independent landholders.

Even while the importation of slaves to America increased in the early 18 century, Quaker spokesmen argued against slavery on the grounds that it contradicted the Christian concept of brotherhood.

As a result of extensive contact with European colonizers during the early 18th century, Native American tribes of the interior altered patterns of tribal life and leadership.

Native Americans were most impressed by and most likely to make use of European iron implements and firearms.

French settlers in America were Not allowed to develop representative political institutions.

In contrast to conditions in the English colonies, life in New Spain was characterized by greater racial intermixture.

New Englanders opted for more of a mixed economy that settlers in the middle or southern colonies because in New England availability and productivity of land was limited

By the early 18th century, colonial Americans were characterized less and less by a religious orientation.

Compared to her English counterpart, the 18th century northern colonial woman enjoyed broader legal and property rights.

The Chesapeake colonies of the early 18th century witnessed the emergence of a planter gentry as political and social leaders.

The vast majority of inhabitants along the coast of South Carolina by the 1740s consisted of black slaves.

The advent of modern life occurred first in the seaboard centers of colonial America including the transition from a barter to a commercial economy.

New England merchants of the early 18th century integrated American producers and consumers in the Atlantic basin trading system.

For urban artisans in colonial America a major goal was economic independence.

The social structure of American colonial cities from 1690 to 1770was influenced by an increasing gap between the wealthy and the poor.

According to the entrepreneurial ethos, government would provide for the general welfare by promoting individual competition.

GROWTH AND CRISIS / BURSTING THE COLONIAL BONDS

Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, England tightened imperial controls over her American empire.

As a result of the Molasses Act of 1733, many of New England's largest merchants and distillers resorted to smuggling.

England declared war on Spain in 1739 because of a desire to dominate trade in the Atlantic basin.

The underlying cause of the Seven Year's War in America was the English colonial penetration of the Ohio Valley.

The turning point of the Seven Years ' War occurred when English Prime Minister William Pitt threw his nation's full military might into the American campaign.

General James Wolfe overcame the French on the Plains of Abraham in 1759 to capture the city of Quebec.

The British Proclamation of 1763 ordered colonial governors to reserve lands west of the Appalachian Mountains for Indian nations.

The end of the Seven Years' War left the American colonies debt-ridden and with weakened  manpower.

Perhaps the most immediately effective protest against the Stamp Act was the organization of riots by the Sons of Liberty.

Passage of the Declaratory Act by parliament asserted Parliament's power to enact laws for the colonies in "all cases whatsoever."

As a result of the Townshend Acts of 1767, Parliament raised customs duties on American imports of paper, lead, paint, and tea.

By early 1770, Parliament decided to repeal the Townshend duties because the  colonial boycott of British goods severely hurt British merchants.

The Boston Massacre, in which 5 townspeople were killed by British redcoats convinced governor Hutchinson to order troops out of town.

Americans objected to the Tea Act of 1773 because it would threaten free enterprise in America.

The Intolerable Acts provided for closing Boston's port until tea destroyed in Boston tea party was paid for. immunity of British soldiers involved in suppressing civil disturbances from local court trials.

The call for the meeting of a Continental Congress in 1774 came in response to the Intolerable Acts.

Discussion at the First Continental Congress were Least concerned with preparing financially and militarily for war.

Even before the 2nd Continental Congress assembled in May 1775, most colonies created and armed militias, bullied merchants and shopkeepers to conform to boycotts, levied taxes, and operated their own courts.

Actual fighting in the American Revolution began when the British Army sent to seize colonial arms was met by colonists at Lexington.

The 2nd Continental congress authorized a continental army of 20,000 soldiers.

Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense urged American colonists to declare their independence from a tyrannical king.

The ideology of revolutionary republicanism borrowed ideas from a variety of former Whig and enlightenment thinkers.

Americans viewed English policies after 1763 as an attack on their constitutional liberties, economic interests, representative rights, and their providential destiny.

A basic component of the republican ideology that emerged in the pre-Revolutionary decade was American rejection of England's monarchy.

Much of the colonial clergy supported the revolutionary movement against English rule.

In the republican world view, governmental power threatened liberty.

The struggle with England over colonial rights between 1764 and 1776 revealed that colonial society was not unified.

During the 1760s and 1770s, urban artisans in America used political discontent to demand internal reforms.

The most important revolutionary role for colonial women was facilitating the boycott of English goods.

For a poor shoemaker like Ebenezer MacIntosh of Boston, the wars of the latter 18th century offered an opportunity for personal advancement.

Most colonial farmers of the 1750s and 1760s seemed more concerned with local issues than English policies.

The regulators of North Carolina opposed the policies of an unresponsive government.

After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, England began constructing a more coherent imperial administration (one dealing with colonies)

Congressional leaders measured one another's rhetoric and temperament (persuasive oratory)

Some revolutionary ideas were expressed in the form of broadsides (a single printed sheet)

Protests against England had stirred up new thoughts in the minds of many peoples about what seemed arbitrary in their own society (unrestrained exercise of power)

TOWARD INDEPENDENCE / YEARS OF DECISION
To be added

A PEOPLE IN WAR AND REVOLUTION

During the first year of the Revolution in New England, the numbers of army recruits declines,

residents experienced widespread loss of life and property, numbers and influence of loyalist increased, and the British decided to evacuate Boston.

Britain established its military headquarters in New York City in 1776 because of the city's central location, spacious harbor, access to food supplies, and Loyalists sentiments.

George Washington's early military setbacks convinced him to adopt a strategy of caution.

Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress would not have the power to impose taxes,

Ratification of the Articles of Confederation was delayed by state disputes over the cession of western land claims.

The ability of the Confederation Congress to function by the stipulation that each state's delegation could cast but one vote.

During the revolutionary War, George Washington repeatedly criticized the Continental congress.

The British invasion of the southern states was complicated by the colonial use of guerilla tactics.

In response to the Revolution, the Cherokee Indians raided western American settlements.

At the peace talks following the revolution, the British responded to the wartime help of the Iroquois entirely their interest.

According to the Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolutions all British forces would evacuate American territory, with all convenient speed, once hostilities ceased.

Britain lost the Revolutionary war because she failed to capitalize sufficiently on her advantages.

During the American Revolution, the state militias required service of only the poorest class of men.

As the Revolutionary War lengthened and its costs increased, men of wealth and influence were least likely to contribute solders for the cause.

For American civilians, the Revolution often caused destruction of confiscation of their property.

American Loyalists during the Revolution came most often from the upper and middle ranks of society.

Many American black slaves sought their freedom during the Revolution by fighting with the British.

The generation of Americans who fought the Revolution became passionately absorbed by political debates.

During and after the Revolution, people continued to be highly political.

Revolutionary Americans wrote state constitutions to define and control governmental powers.

In contrast tot colonial governments, the new state constitutions of the 1770s and 1780s reduced the powers of the governor.

Pennsylvania adopted a radical state constitution which provided for creation of a single, all-powerful legislative house.

Following the Revolution, the right to vote was extended to adult white, male, property holders.

During the 1780s women of property temporarily enjoyed the right to vote in the state of New Jersey.

Women in revolutionary America redefined traditional roles in new political meanings.

Concerning religion, Virginia was a leader in separation of church and state.

The punishment of Loyalists during the Revolution raised concerns over the protection of individual liberty.

American water borne commerce during the Revolution declined dramatically as a result of the British blockade.

American farmers and planters suffered during the Revolution from an overall declining demand for their products.

People of wealth during the 1789s would most likely have supported full funding of the public debt.

The American revolution resulted in financial chaos for Americans mainly because of an over-reliance upon the printing of paper money.

Employing what today would be called guerilla tactics, (hit and run) the American commander harassed the British.

Britain's mercenaries (hired for money from a foreign country) raised fears from among the citizenry.

Many Loyalists were reimbursed (make restoration of pay back) for some of their losses.

in 1807, the New Jersey assembly passed a bill specifically disenfranchising (to take away the right to vote) women.

CONSOLIDATING THE REVOLUTION / THE NEW POLITICAL ORDER

To gain northern commercial advantages in Europe, a majority in the Confederation Congress seemed willing to forego free navigation of the Mississippi River

The steadily eroding position of the Confederation Congress became apparent with the shifting location of its meetings.

The most notable accomplishments of the Confederation Congress resulted in the sale and organization of north western lands.

The legal framework for settlement for settlement of the Northwest Territory provided for the appointment and election of governing officials.

During the immediate postwar years, most white Americans viewed the Native Americans of the interior as conquered peoples to be dominated.

After negotiations with the Unites States in 1`784, the Iroquois renounced the treaty as mad under duress.

By the end of 1786, a Western Confederacy of Indians rejected the whites' conquest theory.

American leaders in the 1780s feared backcountry settlers in the Southwest might seek affiliation with Spain.

The Confederation Congress reacted to the national debt by borrowing additional money abroad.

In spite of aid to the American war effort, France thereafter tried to manipulate the peace process for its own interests.

The treaties of the 1780s negotiated by the new American government with Native Americans of the interior intended to open trans-Appalachia to white settlements.

From the text of the Treaty with the Cherokee (1785) the attitude of the US. might be most properly labeled as paternalistic.

The confederation Congress proved unable to promote American overseas trade primarily because the states refused Congress the power to regulate foreign commerce.

For several years following 1783, a tread developed in American politics marked by resurgent conservatism.

In 1790, Pennsylvania replaced its constitution of 1776 with a more conservative document, the latter one providing for the strengthening of the power of the governor.

The crisis that ultimately sparked Shay's Rebellion in Massachusetts began with the collapse of a complicated pyramid of credit and debt.

Massachusetts responded to Shay's Rebellion with a dispatch of armed militiamen.

By 1786, political and economic turmoil convinced many Americans of the inadequacies of the Article of confederation.

At the Philadelphia convention of 1787, James Madison of Virginia kept extensive notes of the proceedings.

Governor George Clinton of New York feared further strengthening of the national government would threaten the autonomy of New York.

The major objection to the Virginia Plan by the smaller states was the proposal proportional rather than equal representation of the states in Congress.

At the Constitutional Convention, Alexander Hamilton proposed a Congress and President elected for life.

As part of the Great Compromise, each state would have an equal vote in the Senate.

Concerning the fate of black Americans, the Constitution provided federal sanction for the capture and return of runaway slaves

The Constitution most decisively strengthened the national over the state governments.

The Federalists planned carefully for the ratification of the Constitution by calling for the approval of specially elected state conventions.

In the view of the Anti-Federalists, the major goal of governments should be protection of individual liberty.

The authors of the Federalist Papers argued that factionalism was inevitable and should be accommodated.

The Federalists won ratification of the Constitution primarily because of their determination and political skill.

The Philadelphia convention of 1787 was convened to render the constitution of the federal government adequate to the exigencies (pressing needs) of the Union.

Ratification (confirmation) was to be decided by elected conventions.

No national plebiscite (direct vote by the people) on the Constitution was ever taken.

CREATING A CONTINENTAL NATION

Political discussion during the 1790s, evoked tremendous controversy and debate.

As the first president, George Washington considered seriously the significance of his early actions and decisions.

According to Alexander Hamilton, the proper role of the new government was to promote economic enterprise.

As secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton sought to stabilize the government's finances and establish its credit.

Opponents feared Hamilton's plan to fund the national debt would result in a windfall profit for financial speculators.

Hamilton intended his plan for federal assumption of state debts to strengthen the tie between wealth and national power.

Hamilton appeased Southern critics of his assumption plan by offering the South location of the future national capital.

Following the constitutional doctrine of implied powers the national government possesses the authority to enact laws necessary and proper for exercising specific powers.

Thomas Jefferson opposed Hamilton's argument of implied powers because he feared indefinite expansion of federal authority.

Alexander Hamilton viewed the Whiskey Rebellion as a test of the administration's ability to govern.

The French Revolution of 1789, became increasingly radical and violent.

Upon the outbreak of European war in the 1790s, Federalists argued that the French alliance of 1778 had been dissolved when the French monarchy collapsed.

For the Federalists, revolutionary France of the mid-1790s symbolized social anarchy.

In the treaty of 1794 negotiated by John Jay, England agreed to vacate western posts in the following year.

In the Treaty of San Lorenzo (1795), Spain agreed to grant free navigation of the Mississippi River.

John Adams and Thomas Jefferson served respectively as the president and vice-president chosen by the electoral college in 1796.

As a committed Federalist, John Adams longed for political and social order.

As a result of the so-called XYZ Affair, president Adams found himself an unexpected hero or the American public.

The alien Act of 1798 authorized the president to expel any aliens deemed dangerous to the US.

The sedition Act of 1798 was designed by the federalists primarily to smother political opposition.

The majority of individuals convicted of violating the Sedition Act were Republican printers and editors.

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions proposed state nullification of unconstitutional laws.

in the election of 1800, the Federalists were charged with the unconstitutional exercise of federal power.

The election of 1800 resulted in a tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr.

Because of the tie vote in the election of 1800, the election moved to the House of Representatives.

The Federalist caucus (meeting of members of a political group) decided to back Burr, believing him less dangerous than Jefferson.